Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) is considered one of the founding figures of modern sociology. In his seminal work The Division of Labour in Society (De la division du travail social, 1893), he examines how social order and cohesion are maintained in complex societies.
His central thesis: while traditional societies are held together by mechanical solidarity, modern societies are integrated through organic solidarity, which arises from the division of labour. This work provides a theoretical foundation for understanding social differentiation, economic structures, and modern social policy. It is closely connected to themes such as social inequality, socialization, and social roles.
Durkheim’s Theoretical Background and Scientific Context
Durkheim wrote The Division of Labour in Society during a time of profound social transformation. Industrialization and urbanization had reshaped social structures and eroded traditional ways of life. Inspired by Auguste Comte and the functionalist perspective, Durkheim developed an analysis that viewed society as an organic system in which different parts fulfill specific functions.
This work is closely related to his later studies, including The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), in which he establishes sociology as a scientific discipline, and Suicide (1897), where he analyzes the consequences of social disintegration.
Quick Reference
Social Cohesion According to Durkheim
Main author: David Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
First published: 1893
Country: France
Core idea: In the industrial age, social cohesion emerges and is preserved through the principle of division of labour.
Basis for: Durkheim’s concept of anomie forms the foundation of Merton’s strain theory
The Core Thesis: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity
1. Mechanical Solidarity: Traditional Societies
Mechanical solidarity characterizes so-called segmental societies. These societies are built on similarity, repetition, and interchangeability. Members do not differ much from one another and share the same sentiments, values, and religion. Mechanical solidarity is typical of premodern, undifferentiated societies.
- It is based on a strong collective consciousness defined by shared norms, values, and traditions. Durkheim writes:
“The solidarity that arises from similarities reaches its maximum when the collective consciousness completely envelops our individual consciousness and coincides with it in every point. But at this point, our individuality is zero.” (1988: 181f) - Individuals are interchangeable and fulfill similar social roles.
- Social control is enforced through repressive law, which harshly punishes norm violations to preserve the existing order.
Tribal societies, village communities, or premodern agrarian societies exhibit mechanical solidarity.
2. Organic Solidarity: Modern Societies
With increasing division of labour, a new form of social cohesion emerges.
- Individuals specialize in specific occupations and functions, resulting in mutual dependence.
- The collective consciousness weakens, and individual autonomy becomes more important.
- Social control is maintained through restitutive law, which aims to restore disrupted relationships.
Industrial societies with complex labour markets and functionally differentiated social roles.
“As long as the social constitution is segmental, each segment has its own organs that are protected and separated by partitions from similar organs in other segments. But as these partitions fall, similar organs come into contact, enter into competition, and strive to displace one another. Regardless of how this displacement occurs, the result is always some form of progress toward specialization.” (Durkheim 1988: 328f)
Comparison: Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity
| mechanische Solidarität | organische Solidarität | |
|---|---|---|
| Herkunft | Ähnlichkeit / Homogenität | Verschiedenheit, Spezialisierung / Heterogenität |
| Individualität | kaum ausgeprägt; vorherrschendes Kollektivbewusstsein | sehr ausgeprägt; Individualisierung im Zuge der Funktionsdifferenzierung / Arbeitsteilung |
| Verhältnis von Individuum - Gesellschaft | direkte Integration über Kollektivbewusstsein | vermittelte Integration über Normen und Werte |
Law as an Indicator of Social Integration
Durkheim argues that legal systems reflect the type of social solidarity. In societies characterized by mechanical solidarity, emphasis is placed on punishing deviance to preserve the collective consciousness. Repressive law dominates and seeks to suppress violations.
In contrast, societies marked by organic solidarity are governed by restitutive law. Here, the focus lies on restoring order and maintaining trust-based relationships essential to a functionally differentiated society.
- Repressive law (mechanical solidarity): focuses on punishment and upholding collective norms.
- Restitutive law (organic solidarity): regulates contracts and restores social relationships.
Anomie and the Pathologies of the Division of Labour
Durkheim recognized that the division of labour does not automatically result in integration:
- Anomie: A state of normlessness that arises when traditional values erode and new norms have not yet formed. Durkheim’s concept of anomie forms the basis of strain theory in criminology.
- Forced division of labour: Inequality and power imbalances may lead to division based on hierarchies rather than functional differentiation.
Economic crises or increasing job insecurity can lead to social disintegration.
Relevance for Contemporary Society
Durkheim’s The Division of Labour in Society remains vital for understanding social cohesion and modern labour markets:
- Social inequality & exclusion: His ideas help explain how globalization and technological change both integrate and divide societies.
- Migration & integration: Different forms of solidarity influence how societies integrate migrants.
- Norms and values: The transition from mechanical to organic solidarity reshapes normative structures.
- Social roles & socialization: Division of labour requires new forms of socialization to prepare individuals for specialized functions.
Critique and Further Developments
- Critics argue that Durkheim underestimates conflict and power. Marxist theories stress that inequality is not merely dysfunctional but structurally embedded.
- Globalization studies show that the division of labour increasingly operates transnationally, creating new dependencies.
- Postmodern approaches question the stability of social cohesion in individualized societies.
Conclusion: Why Is The Division of Labour Still Relevant?
Durkheim’s work remains a cornerstone for understanding modern societies. His distinction between mechanical and organic solidarity explains how social order can be maintained amid structural change. Topics such as social transformation, exclusion, and social inequality can be analyzed through his framework.
This article is part of the series Key Works of Sociology. Other central texts dealing with social order and differentiation include Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and Talcott Parsons’ The Structure of Social Action. Durkheim’s contribution forms a foundational basis for engaging with these debates.